Integrated conservation and development projects – can they work? This edition of Parks came about as a direct result of the Pakse WCPA meeting in Lao PDR in December 1999, where conservation practitioners and protected area managers from all over South-East Asia met to share experiences and challenges. It is clear that the job of park managers is becoming increasingly complicated. Not only must they manage protected areas and wildlife, many are also taking on additional responsibilities for the social and economic welfare of neighbouring communities. How has this situation come about? And is it sustainable? According to WCMC/UNEP there are now more than 44,000 protected areas worldwide, covering 10.1% of the world’s terrestrial surface. Almost 42% (18,400 sites) are in developing countries, including some of the most biologically rich habitats on Earth. These protected areas are the cornerstones of biodiversity and species conservation (Kramer et al. 1997; Bruner et al. 2001). For most species, protected areas will be the single most important way to ensure their long term survival. Additionally, conservationists are taking an ecosystem or landscape approach towards conservation, working with communities, within and around protected areas, to further conservation objectives. Indeed many in the conservation community believe that wildlife conservation and protected areas in poorer countries are doomed unless local communities become an integral part of conservation efforts and benefit economically from those efforts. As a result, a whole generation of integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) has been born. The term ICDP has been applied to a diverse range of initiatives with a common goal: linking biodiversity conservation in protected areas (PAs) with local social and economic development (Wells et al. 1999). In practice ICDPs usually target both the protected area (by strengthening management) and local communities (by providing incentives such as rural development opportunities to reduce pressure on natural habitats and resources). In most countries ICDPs started as small NGO efforts, but most major donors have now embraced the ICDP model; many build on earlier, more traditional conservation efforts to strengthen park protection and management. ICDPs range in size and scope from initiatives that seek to empower and benefit local communities, through projects designed for poverty alleviation around protected areas, to major programmes which attempt to integrate conservation with regional and national development. All are represented in this issue. It is not surprising that ICDPs are so popular, since they offer an almost irresistible cocktail of perceived gains: biodiversity conservation, increased local community participation, more equitable sharing of benefits and economic development for the rural poor. Early enthusiasm for ICDPs is now being questioned with a more critical examination of their impact on both conservation and development objectives (Kramer et al. 1997; Noss 1997; Brandon et al. 1998, Hackel 1999; Oates 1999; Wells et al. 1999). Do ICDPs work? Are conservation and development compatible? Is the ICDP approach an effective or appropriate model for protected area management? The answers must be “only sometimes” and “under some circumstances”. Often conservation and development are conflicting agendas and projects have unrealistic and contradictory goals, with different stakeholders having very different expectations. Many in the conservation community are concerned that the social agenda is hijacking conservation efforts, yet often ICDPs have attained neither conservation nor rural development objectives. Occasionally they have achieved remarkable and inspiring successes in promoting the conservation agenda, fostering local support and increasing the area of land under protection for biodiversity. The examination of protected areas and activities in this issue focuses on a few case studies from tropical forests in Asia and Central and South America. This focus is deliberate. Although tropical forests, especially lowland forests, are some of the most species-rich habitats on Earth, they are often poorly represented in national and regional protected area systems (MacKinnon 1997). At the same time many of the typical ICDP-type alternative livelihoods based on sustainable use (e.g. wildlife tourism or harvesting activities) are particularly difficult to deliver in tropical rainforests. Nevertheless, many of the same lessons and cautions derived from these forest sites may apply equally well to ICDP projects in other regions and habitats. A new role for protected areas Protected areas used to be seen as areas designated for conservation of wildlife and wildlands; increasingly, they are seen as drivers and providers of social and economic change (Brandon et al. 1998). Debate over the objectives of parks and the benefits that they should provide has become increasingly confused and complex. In addition to their normal duties of managing habitats, wildlife and visitor use, today’s park managers are often expected to take on social issues for which they are ill-equipped: poverty alleviation, land tenure and resource allocation, social and economic injustice and market failures. ICDPs may provide one vehicle to address some of these issues at a local level, but few park authorities have either the mandate or resources to reach far outside their boundaries to address such issues in a broader regional landscape. What makes an ICDP successful or at least more likely to succeed? The Biodiversity Support Programme has listed five main conditions for success in any conservation effort: clarity in conservation goals and objectives; equitable and effective social processes and alliances (participation and partnerships); appropriate incentives for biodiversity valuation and conservation; supportive policies (local, national and international); and sufficient awareness, knowledge and capacity to conserve biodiversity. Add to this recipe some clear indicators, flexible and adaptive management and a long-term commitment of steady support and financing and one may have a chance at success and sustainability. Too often one or more of these ingredients are missing. Clear conservation goals and objectives Setting clear and achievable goals is especially important for ICDPs, where the enthusiasm to build alliances and merge conservation and social agendas often leads to loosely defined objectives, with different, and sometimes conflicting, expectations among stakeholders. Not all categories of protected area have biodiversity conservation as their primary objective, but many do, and it is often these high-biodiversity areas that have been targeted for ICDP interventions. A thorough analysis of threats to the area will help to determine both proximate threats and the root causes of biodiversity loss, and how best these can be addressed through the project. Improving livelihoods or amenities for local communities may bring some limited local benefits and help to win hearts and minds (as in Lao PDR) but it will do little to ensure park viability if the primary threat comes from new roads, agricultural policies or a breakdown in law and order, as the case studies from Leuser and Kerinci (Indonesia) bleakly illustrate. Participation and partnerships Most ICDPs involve a range of stakeholders and partnerships, often including NGOs and the private sector as well as government agencies and local communities. Participation and equity issues can influence how local communities respond to protected areas, to conflicts over rights and resources and to levels of enforcement. Whenever possible local communities should be seen to benefit from park-generated revenues, in terms of tourism income and/or employment benefits. Transparency, participation and fairness are important ingredients in determining how communities accept what uses are permitted, when, where and by whom. Local ownership can be crucial; ensuring that local communities retain benefits not available to outsiders fosters local stewardship for conservation (e.g. Arfak, Periyar). In ICDPs it is often especially difficult to be fair and effective in targeting communities and individuals for development activities. Should one target the main offenders responsible for most biodiversity loss (“turn the poachers into gamekeepers”), provide benefits to those who are protecting the forest (reward good behaviour), or target the poorest of the poor (for poverty alleviation and social equity)? Many ICDPs try to do all three, without any clear assessment of the impact on biodiversity which is the overall objective of the project. In Periyar, however, the staff on the Ecodevelopment project have managed to work effectively with different user groups to enlist their support and turn management problems into effective solutions. Incentives and linkages between conservation and development Many ICDPs are designed on the premise that poverty is the main threat to biodiversity and that providing development opportunities to local communities will reduce pressure on park resources. Often this confidence is misplaced and the linkages between conservation and the development opportunities offered are, at best, unclear. Cases like Arfak where there is a clear link between butterfly ranching and habitat conservation are the exception rather than the rule. Often one can question the wisdom or appropriateness of promoting development and new livelihood opportunities for communities in or around protected areas, especially if they serve as magnets to draw in new migrants to marginal lands. What, then, are the best land-uses adjacent to protected areas, and what buffer zones investments do make good neighbours for protected areas? The answer will vary with site and social context. In Sumatra, ICDPs around Leuser and Kerinci-Seblat National Parks are working with the private sector to maintain buffers of natural habitats in selectively logged forests as part of an ecosystem approach to conservation. In Central America, plantations of certified ‘shade’ coffee in El Salvador provide habitats and corridors for migrating birds and economic incentives for local communities; both farmers and biodiversity benefit. From a social perspective, wellmanaged lands under intensive agriculture may be just as good neighbours as natural habitats, especially if they limit access and encroachment. At Guanacaste, private landowners and orange groves play a similar role. Elsewhere, golf courses, vacation homes and well-run private farms may serve the same function. As usual, the perfect solution will be site-specific and may depend on the interests and support of key landowners. The ICDP focus on meeting community needs and desires may sometimes actually increase the threats to protected areas by increasing levels of harvesting or utilisation as communities take on new options in addition to their previous activities. Giving a villager a high-yielding milk cow may increase his income but will not ensure that he gets rid of his scraggy herd, currently grazing untended in the park and competing with local wildlife; more likely he will keep both. Even more worryingly, the ICDP approach often pushes the park into the role of development provider for local communities, raising expectations that the management authority may have neither the capacity nor financial resources to go on meeting once the project is over and donor funding is finished. Policies In many cases, the root causes of biodiversity loss and threats to protected areas can be traced to government policies or their application (Brandon et al. 1998; Wells et al. 1999). A variety of policies are affecting the rate of tropical forest loss in developing countries: land use, resettlement and transmigration policies that encourage colonisation of frontier regions; provincial and national transport and communication policies that advocate road building through primary forests; energy policies that promote the flooding of lowland valleys for hydroelectric power schemes; pricing policies and subsidies for timber and agricultural products; and land tenure policies that stimulate expansion of the agricultural frontier. The Guanacaste case study illustrates that it is not just local and national policies which impact on protected areas: international policies and global trade also influence local land-use decisions and political support for conservation efforts. Policy challenges to protected areas are further compounded by a general lack of political commitment to conservation, reflected in the weakness of many conservation agencies and the lack of adequate financing for park management. This weakness makes it difficult for park managers to challenge other government agencies over actions and regional development plans that may affect protected areas. Political upheaval, decentralisation and the breakdown of law and order exacerbate the problems, as in Indonesia where illegal logging is occurring in national protected areas and their buffer zones as locals and special interest groups seize the opportunity to grab land and resources (Environmental Investigation Agency 1999; Jepson et al. 2001). Education, awareness and capacity-building As the case studies in this issue show, ICDPs have played a critical role in building local and institutional capacity for strengthening protected areas and their management. They have helped to pilot new institutional models, public-private partnerships and a much greater role for NGOs, local communities and indigenous groups in protected area and conservation activities. These activities, supported by training, education and awareness campaigns, have often been some of the most successful aspects of ICDPs, helping to build local “ownership” and support for protected areas. In many countries, however, a greater challenge is to strengthen national commitment to conservation by increasing the awareness of policy-makers and other major stakeholders of the myriad social benefits of protected areas and their critical role in protecting key environmental services (MacKinnon et al. 1986). Sustainable use and sustainability The present conservation premise of “use it or lose it”, often a basis for ICDPs, has important implications and trade-offs for conservation and protected areas (Wells et al. 1999; Bennett and Robinson 2000). What resources are used, who gets to use them, when , how much, and what for (own use or sale) are decisions dependent on the political and social context. Many ICDPs promote harvesting of non-timber forest products and wildlife, often in park buffer zones, as a way of providing sustainable livelihoods. In Lao PDR the Sustainable Non-timber Forest Project was established with primarily social and development objectives, yet contributes to forest conservation. Elsewhere parks such as Periyar and Guanacaste are allowing privileges to certain user groups for limited collection of specific resources within appropriately zoned areas. Nature-based tourism, especially ecotourism, is a favoured activity for many ICDPs, both to raise revenue for PA recurrent costs and as a means of supporting local economic development. Unfortunately there is still a significant gap between the potential of nature tourism and its actual financial contributions to park financing or local communities (Brandon 1996). Moreover donor funding cycles for ICDPs are usually short-term and rarely provide for financial sustainability beyond the project lifetime, even when they have encouraged the protected areas to take on new responsibilities for community welfare. To address this problem, and to smooth out the irregularities of unpredictable government budgets, many protected areas are looking at devloping other sources of revenue as well as tourism fees. Guanacaste has proven to be an innovative pilot site trying and testing a whole range of revenue earners from tourism to bioprospecting and payments for ecosystem services and carbon sequestration in regenerating forests. Increasingly, protected areas are seeking new institutional mechanisms, with greater involvement of the private sector and civil society (Leuser), and new financial mechanisms, ranging from trust funds to payments for watershed services. The way forward The case studies presented in this issue illustrate a range of projects and activities where park managers, NGOs, local communities and the international community have worked together with mixed success to achieve that elusive goal – sustaining biodiversity in a changing and anthropocentric world. It is clear that ICDPs are no panacea for assuring the long-term viability of protected areas. Nevertheless in a world where governments and donors are increasingly focused on poverty alleviation, it is clear that protected areas will increasingly have to be justified in terms of their linkages and synergies with sustainable development, provision of livelihoods and benefits, and ability to supply society with ecosystem services, such as watershed protection and reducing vulnerability to natural disasters. Many of the problems facing protected areas in tropical countries – inadequate financing, low visitor fees, lack of benefits to local communities, hostile neighbours – are not restricted to developing nations. A typical North American park would likely experience the same shortfalls and challenges. What is different, however, is the expectation that protected areas must be selfsupporting or justified in terms of local economic benefits, rather than maintained as pockets of natural heritage entitled to full support from the public purse. ICDPs, with all their shortcomings, are attempting to meet some of these challenges. The sort of commitment, entrepreneurship, flexibility and opportunism exhibited at Guanacaste may be a foretaste of what will be needed to maintain many other major protected areas and sites of high biodiversity value.

Kathy MacKinnon spent ten years living and working on conservation and protected area issues in Indonesia and South-East Asia. She is now Senior Biodiversity Specialist in the Environment Department of the World Bank. Kmackinnon@worldbank.org